By Ronald Bailey
Friday, February 19, 2016
Nassim Taleb, author of The Black Swan and NYU statistician extraordinaire, has ducked out
of a debate with me that had been arranged by the Journal of Markets and Morality. The topic of the debate was to be,
"Do GMOs [genetically modified organisms] present cause for moral
concern?"
"The goal of this controversy," the editor
explained, "is to assist our readership (economists, political scientists,
theologians, moral philosophers, ethicists) in developing a more informed
understanding of the issues at stake in the current state of the GMO debate,
addressing concerns of fact, morality, and policy." The plan had been to
publish two rounds of back-and-forth between us.
Taleb was invited to participate because he and several
colleagues had earlier published, at his fooledbyrandomness
website, a very anti-GMO working paper, "The Precautionary Principle (with
Application to the Genetic Modification of Organisms." In that paper,
Taleb and his colleagues claimed that "GMOs represent a public risk of
global harm," suggesting that GMOs could result in global
"ecocide" and even perhaps "the extinction of human beings or
all life on the planet." Taleb and another colleague were afforded the
opportunity to express their alarm in The
New York Times, where they declared that "the risk of G.M.O.s are more
severe than those of finance." Human extinction is certainly worse than
even a global financial meltdown. The upshot is that Taleb wants
"prescribe severe limits on GMOs.”
After Taleb had agreed to contribute to the journal's GMO
debate, the managing editor contacted me and asked if I would like to
participate. Citing my "previous scholarly and popular work and
experience," he asked me to write the first essay in the debate series. I
duly submitted my essay, in which I debunk the many claims made by Taleb and
his colleagues about the dangers allegedly posed by modern biotech crops. I
conclude that it was fallacious arguments against developing and growing modern
biotech crops that are cause for great moral concern.
I waited for Taleb's response. It never arrived. The
editor told me last week that Taleb, for reasons unclear, had withdrawn from
the debate.
But since my essay responds to pretty directly to the
claims made in Taleb's anti-GMO working paper, let's go ahead and debate
anyway.
Do GMOs Present
Cause for Moral Concern?
Banning biotech crops under the pretense of implementing
a "non-naive" version of the precautionary principle would be a great
moral wrong. Such a ban would deny access to the significant known benefits
that modern biotechnology is already providing to human beings and the natural
world, all based on wholly unjustified assertions that these crops one day will
somehow produce catastrophic "ruin."
First, let's review the extensive benefits offered by the
current versions of biotech crops. Next, let's evaluate what recent research
has found with regard to the human health and ecological safety concerns
associated with modern biotech crops. We'll end by considering the argument
that the absence of evidence of harm is not evidence of absence of an
inevitable GMO doom.
So far, biotech crops have chiefly been enhanced to
resist pests and herbicide applications, although other traits—including
resistance to disease, drought, and salt—are now being made available to
farmers too. Pest resistance has generally been instilled by adding versions of
a gene from the soil microbe Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt) for a crystal protein that kills insect pests when it is
activated in their alkaline guts. Bt has been used widely in organic farming.
Decades of research have shown that it is safe for people
and other vertebrates to eat. Herbicide resistance has been conferred on most
modern crops by adding a gene for the EPSPS protein obtained from the soil
microbe Agrobacterium sp. strain CP4.
Again, research has shown that the amount of the EPSPS protein regularly
consumed by people is safe to eat.
In 2014, a group of Italian biologists did a comprehensive
review of the last 10 years of research on biotech crops that encompassed
1,783 different scientific studies. These studies dealt with such concerns as
the crops' impacts on natural biodiversity, the possibility that they'll
exchange genes with wild relatives, and their effects on the health of people
and other animals. In the review, the biologists concluded that "the
scientific research conducted so far has not detected any significant hazard
directly connected with the use of GM crops."
So most scientific evidence finds that biotech crops are
safe for people and the environment. What then are the benefits? In a 2014 meta-analysis
of 147 studies, a team of German researchers reports that the global
adoption of genetically modified crops has reduced chemical pesticide use by 37
percent, increased crop yields by 22 percent, and increased farmer profits by
68 percent. They conclude that there is "robust evidence of GM crop benefits
for farmers in developed and developing countries." Therefore it is no
surprise that farmers around the world have (when regulators permit it)
embraced these enhanced crop varieties. The global extent of biotech crops has
increased more than 100-fold from 4.2 million acres in 1996 to about 450
million acres in 2014. Eighteen million farmers in 28 countries planted them in
2014.
Future Benefits
Ideological opposition to biotech crops is actually
killing people and harming the natural world. Consider the case of Golden Rice,
in which non-profit Swiss researchers used genetic engineering to boost the
production of the vitamin A precursor beta-carotene. Researchers estimate that
vitamin A deficiency is responsible for 1.9 to 2.8 million preventable deaths
annually, mostly of children under five years old and women. Some 125 million
children under age five suffer from vitamin A deficiency, of which 250,000 to
500,000 go blind each year. Half of these children die within a year of
becoming blind. Vitamin A deficiency also weakens immune responses, greatly
increasing the risk of severe illness. According to one 2014 estimate, the
10-year delay in getting Golden Rice to poor farming families has resulted in
the loss of 1.4 million life-years in India alone.
Meanwhile, biotech crops increase yields. Increased
yields mean that farmers can grow more food, feed, and fiber on less acreage,
thus sparing more land for nature. Biotech crops are partially responsible for
the imminent arrival of peak farmland. If global crop yields had remained stuck
at 1960 levels, farmers around the world would have needed about 3 billion more
hectares to grow enough food for the world's current population. That's about
the size of the USA, Canada, and China combined.
Instead, the amount of land farmed for crops increased
from 1,371 million hectares in 1961 to 1,533 million hectares in 2009. In other
words, the amount of land plowed increased by only about 10 percent as yields
have tripled. Recent research estimates that continued agricultural
intensification, including the further deployment of genetically enhanced
crops, could return 150 million hectares of land to nature by 2060. The amount
of farmland restored to nature could rise to as much as 400 million hectares if
ethanol subsidies were eliminated.
In addition, shifting wood and pulp production to
plantations of faster-growing genetically enhanced trees would help speed the
trend toward restoring natural forests and thus aid in the protection of many
endangered species. In addition, plant breeders are making strides toward
dramatically lowering the amount of nitrogen that fertilizer crops need,
strengthening disease resistance, incorporating salt and drought tolerance, and
boosting photosynthetic efficiency. Much progress is being made using molecular
techniques that enable researchers to rapidly identify and crossbreed crop
plants that express promising traits like drought tolerance, disease
resistance, or higher yields.
The advent of the fantastically versatile CRISPR genome-editing
technology gives plant breeders "molecular scissors" that can cut and
paste genetic information, producing stable and heritable genomic changes
quickly and easily without introducing foreign DNA. Heretofore, once plant
breeders had identified a useful gene—say, one for disease resistance—in a
landrace, it would take years of crossbreeding to transfer it to a
high-yielding cultivar of the same crop species. With CRISPR, if breeders
identify a natural gene variant conferring natural fungus resistance in a less
productive landrace, they can simply edit the corresponding gene variant to
match in the more productive strain, thus conferring the same natural fungus
resistance on it. Using CRISPR means that plant breeders can dramatically speed
up the process of getting useful genes into high-yielding crop varieties.
Given these clear health and environmental benefits, why
do Taleb and his colleagues so fear modern biotech crops that they want to
"prescribe severe limits on GMOs"?
Biotech Crops and
the Alleged Risk of Human Extinction
Taleb and his colleagues want to impose their supposedly
non-naive version of the precautionary principle to forestall activities when
"consequences can involve total irreversible ruin, such as the extinction
of human beings or all life on the planet." And GMOs, they feel, could
result in "irreversible environmental and health damage" or cause
"an irreversible termination of life at some scale, which could be
planetwide." They Biotech crops, they claim, pose a systemic risk of
global ecocide.
It is a trivially true statement that if some activity
will eventually lead to total ruin, then total ruin, even if it takes a long
time, will eventually follow that activity. Taleb and his colleagues just
assume that producing and growing modern biotech crops is such an activity,
then trivially predict a GMO apocalypse. There is a lot of hand-waving about
the dangers of global connectivity and dose response relationships that may be
relevant to the workings of financial markets, but they provide no
justification for their assumption of biotech disaster. Unwarranted dire
assumptions in; unjustified devastating consequences out.
First, as University of Milan researcher Giovanni
Tagliabue has pointed out, Taleb and his colleagues lump modern biotech crops
and the technologies used to produce them into a "nonsensical GMO
pseudo-category." Tagliabue argues that it is "theoretically and
practically impossible to precisely specify the supposed common
denominator" for crops modified using many disparate techniques for
resistance to disease, drought, salt, herbicides, or pests or for agronomic
characteristics such better fertilizer response, reductions in allergens or
carcinogens, improved fruit quality, and so forth.
Despite the lack of an adequate definition of what they
fear, Taleb and company assert that the precautionary principle applies to GMOs
"because their risk is systemic. There are two aspects of systemic risk,
the widespread impact on the ecosystem and the widespread impact on health."
They more or less repeat themselves by additionally claiming that "the
systemic global impacts of GMOs arise from a combination of (1) engineered
genetic modifications, (2) monoculture—the use of single crops over large
areas." Evidently the alleged systemic risk to ecosystems stems from their
assertion that "GMOs have the propensity to spread uncontrollably, and
thus their risks cannot be localized." With regard to purported health
risks posed by GMOs, they claim that "foods derived from GMOs are not
tested in humans before they are marketed." Another odd claim is that
"biologists and agronomists are adopting top down engineering strategies
and taking global systemic risks in introducing organisms into the wild."
Let's take these one by one.
Do modern biotech crops have a propensity to spread
uncontrollably? No. No knowledgeable person worries that modern cultivars of
corn, soybeans, cotton, rice, wheat, potatoes, and so forth will invade and
take over forests, prairies and wetlands. The fact is that artificial selection
for characteristics that increase yields and make harvest easier have made
crops unfit to compete in the wild. "No GMO plant, or any other vegetable
for that matter, is capable of spreading uncontrollably across the planet,"
notes Tagliabue.
Over the centuries of domestication, farmers and crop
breeders made vast changes in crops by unknowingly targeting genomic regions
containing both structural and regulatory genes. Farmers were selecting novel
and improved strains generated by chance mutation and variation. Conceptually,
it's the same process today, just using better and less random methods.
Perhaps by "spread uncontrollably" they are
expressing badly articulated worries that genes from biotech crops will somehow
invade and devastate the natural world? It is well established that over the
centuries domesticated crops have regularly exchanged genes with their wild
relatives. Such hybridizations can have deleterious ecological effects such as
increasing weediness or reducing evolutionary fitness. Genes from biotech crops
have also been outcrossed into wild relatives, but their effects are similar to
those that occur when conventional cultivars and wild relatives exchange
genes. Producing hardier weeds or
occasionally causing a rare plant species to go extinct does not amount to
anything like global ecocide.
What about monoculture? In a sense, agriculture is monoculture. After all, it was
invented thousands of years ago when farmers figured out that they could get
more food by segregating plants that they wanted to grow (crops) into fields
that excluded competing plants that they didn't want (weeds). It is true that
large swathes of arable land are devoted to growing crops like wheat, corn,
rice, soybeans, and potatoes. But monoculture is not particular to
biotechnology and does not mean genetic homogeneity. For example, a 2010 survey
of just U.S. seed catalogs reported that farmers had more the 7,000, 3,800 and
100 different varieties of corn, soybean, and cotton seeds respectively
available to them. In addition, crop breeders using either conventional or
modern biotech methods have successfully maintained the overall genetic
diversity of the cultivars they release to farmers.
What about the claim that foods made from biotech crops
are not tested in people? In the United States, the Food and Drug
Administration is responsible for overseeing the safety of foods. The agency
states, "Foods from GE [genetically engineered] plants must meet the same
food safety requirements as foods derived from traditionally bred plants."
Except for pharmaceuticals, potentially toxic substances are not generally
tested in people. Even in that case, pharmaceutical regulators have arguably
proven to be far too cautious
when assessing the safety of new drugs.
To ascertain the safety of non-drug substances,
researchers use standard tests in animals and human cells. Companies that want
to sell new biotech crop varieties must submit safety-testing results to the
FDA. The agency will not approve the new cultivar until it is satisfied that it
safe for humans to eat. As usual, Taleb and company deploy their inapt
rhetorical strategy and simply assert that the tests the FDA relies upon are
inadequate. Never mind that for nearly 20 years human beings and livestock have
eaten trillions of servings of food and feed made from biotech crops with no scientifically
discernible harm.
Taleb and his colleagues claim that "human
experience over generations has chosen the biological organisms that are
relatively safe for consumption." But that is simply not true. For nearly
a century now, plant breeders have been massively rearranging the genomes of
crop plants by blasting them with radiation or exposing them to caustic
chemicals. The Food and Agriculture Organization's Mutant Varieties Database
lists over 3,200 officially released mutant varieties from 214 different plant
species grown in more than 60 countries throughout the world. Over 1,000 of the
listed mutants are cultivars of major staple crops that farmers plant on tens
of millions of hectares. If these varieties are safe for people and the
environment (and they are), then it stretches the imagination beyond the
breaking point to believe that the comparatively minor changes made using more
precise modern biotechnological techniques could result in planetwide
devastation and human extinction.
Finding no smoking gun, Taleb and his colleagues must
hyperbolically conjure one and liken growing biotech crops to playing Russian
roulette. They have it backwards. By pushing to ban biotech crops, Taleb and
company are demanding that poor people continue to spin those metaphoric
cylinders whose chambers are already fully loaded with real disease, hunger,
and back-breaking labor. Modern biotechnology can empty a few of those
chambers, and thus reduce the chances that when the trigger is pulled disaster
will ensue.
"For [genetically modified] crops to be part of the
solution, biosafety assessments should not be overly politically-driven or a
burdensome impedance to delivering this technology broadly," the ecologist
Peter Raven has cogently argued. "Biosafety scientists and policy makers
need to recognize the undeniable truth that inappropriate actions resulting in
indecision also have negative consequences. It is no longer acceptable to delay
the use of any strategy that is safe and will help us achieve the ability to
feed the world's people." Fallacious arguments against developing and
growing modern biotech crops is cause for great moral concern.
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